Null Hypothesis And Alternative Hypothesis Philosophy Essay

Invalid Hypothesis And Alternative Hypothesis Philosophy Essay So as to make due in the business world, specialty units today are compelled to improve and dispatch the items quickly in the market. However, this is more difficult than one might expect. Various elements come into the image for this to appear. Prominently among them is the way that a lot of cost factor which comes into the image. For the item propelling is all around arranged and thought off movement. The exercises incorporate leading business sector overviews which in plain sense implies that the specialty units are required to direct or decide the attainability of the new item inside a constrained region and afterward dependent on the outcomes they go in further direction for example proceed with the dispatch of the item or to drop the task by and large. At the end of the day, specialty units direct example studies for example acquiring the reaction on a little bit of the bigger picture and afterward dependent on the consequences of the little piece, gauge the probable reaction on the bigger part of the image. The little piece is known as the example and the bigger part is known as the populace. In this way the idea of test and populace assumes a fundamental job and helps the administration in taking center choices which may or not demonstrate productive in the endurance of the business. All together, to take choices dependent on the example and to assess the populace boundaries specialty units are required to begin with a portion of the presumptions or the theory. Furthermore, in view of presumptions or speculation about the populace it is tried implying that whatever the supposition that they began with, regardless of whether the supposition that was right or inaccurate. Along these lines we have speculation testing. Let us take a guide to outline what has been said previously. Assume, the specialty units need to acquire another item in the market which will expand the piece of the pie and consequently the productivity of the specialty unit. For this situation, the theory would be presentation of new item will build the gainfulness and dependent on this the study would be directed. The consequences of examination of the information will uncover whether the speculation was right or off base. This unit will cover the essentials of speculation and its testing; the means required to test the theory. This unit will likewise cover the sorts and qualities of theory and so forth. Targets Subsequent to contemplating this unit, the peruser will have the option to: Comprehend the fundamental ideas of speculation Comprehend the different kinds and the attributes of theory Comprehend the means associated with the testing of speculation Comprehend the two followed and the one followed tests associated with the testing of speculation Comprehend the rule when to acknowledge or when to dismiss the speculation Comprehend the way where choices are to be assumed the premise of the outcomes showed up during the way toward testing of theory 6.2 Defining Hypothesis So as to examine the essentials of theory testing in detail let us presently, characterize what is implied by speculation. Essentially, speculation is a unit of the inferential measurements (for example the part of measurements which is utilized to surmise data on the gathered information) which is utilized to test a case about the bigger segment (which is called populace) in light of the information gathered from the littler part known as test. At the end of the day theory testing is the way toward marking guarantee dependent on the qualities acquired from the example. Let us take a model so as to commute home the point represented previously. A maker associated with the assembling of types asserts that the normal existence of their tires will last at any rate 70,000 kms. We need to test the case made by the maker. The procedure we will embrace is to take an example of tires, run them until they perceive what number of kms. on normal they have kept going. In the event that the example has kept going more than 70,000 kms, at that point we do have the motivation to accept that the case is right and that the various tires they produce will likewise last 70,000 kms. miles. In coming to this end result, we may submit the accompanying We may inaccurately say the tires don't last in any event 70,000 kms when in certainty they do last We may inaccurately say the tires do last in any event 70,000 kms when in actuality they don't Subsequently, we may submit a few blunders during the way toward having a special interest in the theory we have defined. This viewpoint will be canvassed in next area Self Assessment Questions Valid or False Supervisors are required to decide Speculation is a suspicion about something which is taken to be valid We may submit a few blunders during the time spent testing of speculation 6.3 Characteristics of Hypothesis Having comprehended the meaning of speculation, let us presently comprehend the attributes of theory. Coming up next are the qualities of speculation. A theory depends on thinking which seems, by all accounts, to be advocated This just implies the speculation we have detailed ought to be founded on the past examination and the theory ought to follow the most probable result not the excellent result. For instance, we should shape the theory with respect to the starting of new item based on the past information which was examined and which provoked us to make further strides, for example, statistical surveying and so forth A speculation should give a sensible clarification to the result which is to be anticipated This implies the theory defined ought not concentrate on the ridiculous result for example the theory ought to be founded on the practical situation. For instance, a speculation, for example, our new programming will outperform the deals of the product vendor who is driving the product showcase or that our product will sell very well on the outside of the moon. All these are ridiculous. A theory ought to obviously express the connection between the factors that are characterized This just implies the theory ought not be ambiguous. It ought to be in plain straightforward terms and in a language which is easy to comprehend. For instance, the theory that the MIS report will be printed to some degree in 3 to 4 minutes is vague and befuddling. A theory characterizes the factors quantifiable terms This implies the theory center around the angles, for example, who all eventual influenced; who are the players simultaneously and such. For instance, speculation, that the item will work accurately for 2 months for little youngsters. A theory is testable in guaranteed or adequate measure of time This implies the theory is tried inside a limited measure of time. A theory which can't be tried inside the limited measure of time will never be tried nor acknowledged Self Assessment Questions Fill in the spaces A theory is _________ in a given time of ______________ Theory characterizes __________ in quantifiable terms Theory ought to characterize the ________ between the factors 6.4 Types of Hypothesis Having comprehended the essential wording of speculation let us currently talk about the kinds of theory. In spite of the fact that we have quite recently scratched the sorts of theory, let us presently expound of kinds of speculation. Speculation are of different sorts. Some of them are talked about beneath Invalid speculation Substitute speculation Straightforward Hypothesis Complex speculation Invalid Hypothesis This speculation is planned when the analyst accepts that there is no connection between two factors or when there is inadequate data to detail an express an exploration theory. It is indicated by H0 Substitute speculation This speculation is something contrary to Null theory. it is detailed then the scientist accepts that there is adequate data to accept that there is connection between the factors. It is spoken to as H1 or H⠵ Straightforward theory This speculation predicts the connection between a free factor and a reliant variable. Both the factors must be single factors  Complex speculation This speculation is utilized to anticipate the connection between at least two autonomous factors and at least two ward factors Instances of various sorts of Hypothesis Wellbeing related training programs impact the quantity of individuals who smoke Papers influences people groups expectation for everyday comforts Non-appearance in classes influences test scores Lower levels of activity is liable for increment in weight Self Assessment Questions Valid or False Complex theory is utilized to anticipate the connection between at least two free factor with at least two ward factors Interchange speculation is inverse to invalid theory 6.5 Hypothesis Testing Having comprehended the different kinds of speculation let us harp on the significant purpose of theory testing. As expressed above theory implies that we check the case on the bigger unit dependent on the information and the outcomes got by performing factual tests on the information. let us currently take a gander at the means associated with the testing of theory. coming up next are the means : Depict in an announcement about the populace trademark for which the theories is to be tried Express the invalid theory and delineate as Ho Express the elective theory delineate it as H1 or Ha Recognize and show the test measurement that will be utilized Recognize the district of dismissal area Is it on the upper, lower, or on the two-followed test Decide the basic worth that will be related as a, the degree of criticalness at which the test is to be led Register the amounts in the test measurement Express the end dependent on the registered measurements implying that it is currently to be chosen regarding whether dismiss the invalid speculation, Ho, or acknowledge the substitute theory. The end is reliant fair and square of importance of the test. Figure 1 gives a graphical perspective on the means engaged with the testing of theory Figure 1 Steps associated with the testing of speculation 6.6 Difference between Null Hypothesis and Alternative Hypothesis In the past units we have comprehended the nuts and bolts of invalid

Jay’s Treaty, Between Britain and the U.S.

Jay’s Treaty, Between Britain and the U.S. Jay’s Treaty was an understanding between the United States and Great Britain marked on November 19, 1794 proposed to deflect war and resolve issues between the two nations that had waited since the finish of the American Revolutionary War. While it was disagreeable with the American open, the arrangement prevailing with regards to guaranteeing a time of tranquil and commonly beneficial exchange between the United States and Britain during the French Revolutionary Wars. The arrangement was marked by President George Washington on November 19, 1794 and endorsed by the U.S. Senate on June 24, 1795. It was then confirmed by the British Parliament and produced results on February 29, 1796. Authoritatively titled, â€Å"Treaty of Amity, Commerce, and Navigation, Between His Britannic Majesty and the United States of America,† and furthermore called â€Å"Jay Treaty,† the settlement draws its name from John Jay, its boss U.S. arbitrator. Key Takeaways: Jay's Treaty Jay’s Treaty was a discretionary understanding reached in 1794 between the United States and Great Britain.Jay’s Treaty was planned to determine questions between the two countries that stayed after the 1783 Treaty of Paris had finished the American Revolutionary War.The bargain was marked on November 19, 1794, endorsed by the U.S. Senate on June 24, 1795, and endorsed by the British Parliament, in this way putting it into full impact on February 29, 1796.The arrangement draws its name from its boss U.S. arbitrator, first Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, John Jay.â Unpleasant issues with the bargain by the French government prompted the XYZ Affair of 1797 and the 1798 Quasi-War with France. In the United States, political clash over sanction of the settlement added to the formation of America’s initial two ideological groups: the master bargain Federalist Party, drove by Alexander Hamilton, and the counter arrangement Democratic-Republican Party drove by Anti-federalists Thomas Jefferson and James Madison. Worldwide Issues Driving Jay’s Treaty After the American Revolutionary War finished, pressures between the United States and Great Britain remained justifiably high. In particular, three principle issues stayed uncertain considerably after the 1783 Treaty of Paris had finished military threats: Products sent out from America were all the while being obstructed by Britain’s wartime exchange limitations and taxes. Simultaneously, British imports were flooding American markets, leaving the U.S. confronting a huge exchange deficit.  British troops were all the while involving a few fortresses on U.S.- asserted region from the Great Lakes locale to advanced Ohio, which they had consented to abandon in the Treaty of Paris. The British control of the posts left American boondocks pioneers living in those regions open to intermittent assaults by Indian tribes.Britain kept on holding onto American boats conveying military supplies and power or â€Å"impress† the American mariners into the administration of the British Royal Navy to battle against France. At the point when France did battle with Great Britain in 1793, the significant stretch of worldwide harmony that had helped the recently free United States prosper in both exchange and income finished. America’s expectation to stay impartial in the European war was tried when somewhere in the range of 1793 and 1801, the British Royal Navy, all of a sudden, caught almost 250 American shipper ships conveying merchandise from French states in the West Indies. The blend of these and other waiting issues and hostilities brought the U.S. what's more, Britain back to the verge of war in the late 1700s. US Response and Politics The American open was offended, particularly by Britain’s seizure of American boats, load, and impressment of mariners. In Congress, Thomas Jefferson requested entry of an announcement of war. James Madison, notwithstanding, required an exchange ban on every single British great as a progressively moderate reaction. Simultaneously, British authorities exacerbated the situation by offering rifles and different weapons to the First Nations Indian clans close to the Canadian-American fringe and telling their pioneers that they not, at this point expected to regard the outskirt. American political pioneers were sharply partitioned on the best way to react. Driven by Jefferson and Madison, the Democratic-Republicans supported helping the French in its war with Britain. Nonetheless, Hamilton’s Federalists contended that haggling for quiet relations with Britain-particularly exchange relations-could transform the British into an enduring and ground-breaking partner. President George Washington concurred with Hamilton and sent Chief Justice of the Supreme Court John Jay to London to arrange a sweeping settlement Jay’s Treaty. Arrangements and Terms of the Treaty In spite of his notable order of strategy, Jay confronted an overwhelming arranging task in London. He accepted that his best negotiating advantage was the danger that America would help the impartial Danish and the Swedish governments in keeping the British from coercively holding onto their products. In any case, what Jay didn't know was that in a benevolent endeavor to set up positive attitude with Britain, Hamilton had freely educated British administration that the U.S. government had no aim of helping any of the impartial European countries. In doing this, Hamilton left Jay with little clout in requesting concessions from the British. When Jay’s Treaty was at long last marked in London on November 19, 1794, the American moderators had won just two quick concessions. The British consented to abandon its fortresses in the northern United States domains by June 1796. Furthermore, Britain consented to give the United States the beneficial â€Å"most supported nation† exchanging status, yet significantly constrained U.S. exchange to developing worthwhile markets in the British West Indies.â Most other exceptional issues, including British seizures of American boats and reimbursement of U.S. pre-Revolutionary War obligations to Britain, were left to be chosen later through the moderately new procedure of universal assertion. Jay had to yield that during the vague time of assertion, Britain could keep on seizing U.S. products set out toward France on American boats on the off chance that they paid for them and could hold onto French merchandise moved on American boats without installment. Be that as it may, Jay flopped in his endeavor to arrange a conclusion to Britain’s impressment of American mariners into the Royal Navy, an irritated point which would gradually putrefy into a key issue driving the War of 1812. While the American open, feeling it excessively beneficial to Britain noisily questioned Jay’s Treaty, it went in the U.S. Senate by a 20 to 10 decision on June 24, 1795. Regardless of the numerous protests against doing as such, President Washington executed the bargain, believing it to be the cost of a time of harmony during which the United States could revamp its assets and military powers in case of future clashes. Jay’s Treaty and Indian Rights Article III of Jay’s Treaty conceded all Indians, American residents, and Canadian subjects the never-ending option to unreservedly go between the United States and Canada, at that point a British domain, for purposes travel or exchange. From that point forward, the United States has regarded this understanding by classifying its arrangement in Section 289 of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952, as corrected. Because of Jay’s Treaty, â€Å"Native Indians conceived in Canada are in this way qualified for enter the United States with the end goal of business, study, retirement, contributing, and additionally immigration.† Today, Article III of Jay’s Treaty is refered to as the premise of numerous legitimate cases documented against the U.S. what's more, Canadian governments by Indians and Indian clans. Effect and Legacy of Jay’s Treaty Students of history for the most part concur that regarding current worldwide tact, Jay got the â€Å"short end of the stick,† by having accomplished just two minor quick concessions from the British. In any case, as Historian Marshall Smelser brings up, Jay’s Treaty achieved President Washington’s essential objective forestalling another war with Great Britain, or if nothing else postponing that war until the United States could turn out to be monetarily, strategically, and militarily ready to battle it.â In 1955, student of history Bradford Perkins infer that Jay’s settlement brought the United States and Great Britain from inside a sword’s purpose of war in 1794 to the edge of the valid and enduring fellowship and participation that suffers today. â€Å"Through a time of universal war and harmony, progressive governments on the two sides of the Atlantic had the option to realize and save a sincerity which frequently moved toward certifiable friendship,† he wrote.â Sources Bemis, Samuel Flagg. â€Å"Jays Treaty and the Northwest Boundary Gap. Harvard College Library First Nations and Native Americans United States Embassy, Consular Services Canada.Karl S. Hele.Lines Drawn upon the Water: First Nations and the Great Lakes Borders and Borderlands Wilfrid Laurier University PressElkins, Stanley M. also, Eric McKitrick. The Age of Federalism: The Early American Republic, 1788â€1800 February 1, 1995. Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN-13: 978-0195093810Smelser, Marshall. The Democratic Republic, 1801-1815 Waveland Press. Walk 1, 1992. ISBN-13: 978-0881336689Perkins, Bradford. The First Rapprochement: England and the United States, 1795â€1805 University of California Press. ISBN-13: 978-052000998

Need Research Paper Wrote For Your Business?

Need Research Paper Wrote For Your Business?It's no secret that you need research paper written by a professional for your business. However, what many people don't realize is that it's not that simple. Many entrepreneurs are unable to find a way to hire someone to write their research paper or even choose the right writer.You need to be certain that you are hiring someone who can write a quality research paper for you. You will find many writers who are qualified to write for your business. However, it is a mistake to pick up the first writer you encounter, as you may find later on that this person doesn't work out in your business.When hiring a writer, keep the following tips in mind: first, you want to find someone who is affordable and should write a research paper on your company for less than one time. Second, you want to check their writing skills. If they do not know how to write a research paper for you, then he or she will not do an effective job for you.You want to get an invoice for his or her time on a time card and then compare that price to the cost of hiring the writer. A few things to look for when choosing your writer include the number of sales pages they have written in the past and then how many of those sales pages made the top ten list for the month. Keep track of what they charge. This is because you want to be sure you get the lowest cost for the greatest quality.Check out the writing samples and the experience of the writer. Look for samples online and learn from them. Ask them about how they are going to write your research paper for you. Make sure they offer the following to you before signing the contract for the project:The biggest thing you can do when you need a great research paper written for you is to ensure that you are getting the best writer possible. There are a lot of writers who will offer you great research papers, but you won't get the best because you weren't aware of what they are capable of. You can make sure to do this by checking on the credentials of the writer. If you are able to check these credentials, you will be sure to pick up the best writers for your business.One writer can write several research papers for you and may be able to write a whole book on your niche, but you won't get the best out of your research paper writer if he or she is not qualified. As you can see, there are a lot of things to consider when you need a research paper written for you.Remember, you need a research paper written for you if you are starting up a business. Make sure you are doing the research correctly so you can ensure that you get the most out of your money and time.

An Comprehensive Literacy Instruction Is Essential And...

A teacher’s learning instruction is essential and paints the picture for a child’s success in society. A teacher’s literacy instruction provides children with the needed skills to be fluent in reading, writing, phonemic awareness, and math. Phonics and phonemic awareness also help with reading comprehension. Preparing a child for fluency and comprehension means doing the basics and leading up to the high expected skills. Each step in developing reading and writing is built off the other; for example, cause and effect. What is an affective comprehensive literacy instruction? Is one better than the other? This essay will define comprehension literacy instruction and explain how to scaffold a child’s literacy development. What Is Comprehensive Literacy Instruction? According to Cambridge (2012) â€Å"the term comprehensive literacy instructions means instruction that incorporates effective literacy instruction and is designed to support developmentally appropriate, contextually explicit, systematic instruction, and frequent practice, in reading across content areas; and developmentally appropriate and contextually explicit instruction, and frequent practice, in writing across content areas.† Comprehensive literacy instruction is made up of different components; five essential components and four additional components. The National Reading Panel identified the five components which are phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and text comprehension. The four additionalShow MoreRelatedVocabulary Strategies For Teachers And Parents5588 Words   |  23 Pagescore components of reading instruction that is essential to successfully teaching children how to read. 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Csr And Product Lifecycle And Its Components Essay

CSR is a very relevant and important piece of any company’s marketing equation. In the past, it was not even a consideration but with the education and affluence of today’s consumer, a company must address CSR on some level if it expects to be successful in the future. When looking at CSR, the product lifecycle and its components are more relevant than ever before. An organizations true commitment to follow through on CSR and product lifecycle can truly affect the company’s success and reputation. Some consumer might be swayed by product certification logos as they represent corporate CSR and can instill brand trust to certain consumers. As today’s consumer and marketplace is demanding and knowledgeable; an organization is wise to listen as they speak with their wallets and step up its CSR program. 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According to Jill Dyche (2002), CRM promises to help companies get to know their customers well enough to understand which ones to keep and which ones they should be willing

Truth Evident in the Many Beliefs of Al-Ghazali and...

Truth Evident in the Many Beliefs of Al-Ghazali and Aquinas At first glance the words â€Å"Tradition† and â€Å"tradition† may appear to be identical concepts. Upon further study, examination, and contemplation, however, these two words differ in their precise definitions. â€Å"Tradition† carries more weight and meaning than the word â€Å"tradition.† Similarly, â€Å"Truth† and â€Å"truth† do not denote the exact same principle. In fact, philosophers and religious scholars have been debating the origins of the latter two doctrines since the Middle Ages. The major dispute associated with â€Å"Truth† with a capital T and â€Å"truth† with a lower-case â€Å"t† focuses around the field of study in which each is used. According to two prominent thinkers of the†¦show more content†¦The general stance of Al-Ghazali is that he eventually â€Å"departs from philosophy and becomes a Sufi mystic† (Inglis). Within Sufism, Al-Ghazali defined the difference between Ilham (inspiration) and Ta’allum (reasoning or learning). He believes that inspiration and revelation in union with religion hold a superior position than reasoning that originates from philosophy. Rational knowledge, according to Al-Ghazali, is always relative to the senses. The knowledge of the senses, however, cannot be trusted as valid. True knowledge, known as the Truth, only comes through inspiration and revelation (McCarthy 378). Al-Ghazali introduces the aspect of God, or Allah, in the acquisition of perfect knowledge. â€Å"Inspiration can bring one closer to Allah than philosophical learning alone† (Inglis). Ultimately, this idea of Ilham brings with it the Supreme Reality which is equivalent to Truth (McCarthy 378). In practical terms, Al-Ghazali believes that the necessary Truths of the intellect begin from â€Å"a light which God most high cast into my breast. That light is the k ey to the greater part of knowledge† (Al-Ghazali 25). An individual can only experience this light of God if he or she has reached the â€Å"state.† According to Al-Ghazali, when an individual is in the â€Å"state,† the Truth is revealed to him or her by the divine workings of Allah, and the knowledge of reason has no value. So how does one achieve this great â€Å"state?† ThisShow MoreRelatedhistory of philosophy5031 Words   |  21 Pagesunjustly, for claiming that truth was no more than opinion and for teaching people to argue fallaciously to prove whatever conclusions they wished). This whole movement gradually became more concentrated in  Athens, which had become the dominant city-state in  Greece. There is considerable discussion about why Athenian culture encouraged philosophy, but a popular theory[which?]  says that it occurred because Athens had a direct  democracy. It is known from Platos writings that many sophists maintained schools

12 Angry Men Influence of Surroundings Essay Example For Students

12 Angry Men: Influence of Surroundings Essay A persons surroundings can influence him. In 12 Angry Men by Reginald Rose a young mans life is held by twelve men with contrasing views. Eight a caring man, who wishes to talk about why the other jurors think that the boy is guilty, clashes with Three, a sadistic man who would pull the swith himselfto end the boys life. Accroding to Rose, several elements can infulence a jurys verdict, such as the emotional make-up of individual jurors. Many elements can change a jurors decision. Juror Three, who is convincd that the boy is guilty, is allied with Four who is eventually convicedEights showing of how the two testimonies given by the old woman and old man are lies, votes guilty. Three outraged by this exclames A guilty mans gonna be walking the streets hes got to die! Stay with me. (23) But Four sees the truth that Eight has brought into th light and still votes guilty. We will write a custom essay on 12 Angry Men: Influence of Surroundings specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now Eight tries to convince Three how the boy is not guilty beyond reasonable doubt but Three does not listen adn would rather see the boy die. For this kid, you bet Id pull the switch.(17) This shows how emotionally unstable Three is. He is a grown man living in a civilized community and would like to see a boy who he does not even know die by his own hands Eight does not think highly of Three for what he says about killing the boy and shouts your a sadist.(17) which is the absolute truth about Three. The emotional make-up of a juror can change his desicision on wther or not to let a man live or die. When someone is asked judge someone else, shoud not you look at al the facts to be sure beyond a shoadow of a doubt that the man who cimmitted the crime is guilty? Yes, a juror should look at all the facts but some do not, they just judge the person on how that person feels. Category: English . 12 Angry Men Influence Of Surroundings Essay Example For Students 12 Angry Men: Influence Of Surroundings Essay 12 Angry Men: Influence Of Surroundings Essay A persons surroundings can influence him. In 12 Angry Men by Reginald Rose a young mans life is held by twelve men with contrasing views. Eight a caring man, who wishes to talk about why the other jurors think that the boy is guilty, clashes with Three, a sadistic man who would pull the swith himselfto end the boys life. Accroding to Rose, several elements can infulence a jurys verdict, such as the emotional make-up of individual jurors. We will write a custom essay on 12 Angry Men: Influence Of Surroundings specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now Many elements can change a jurors decision. Juror Three, who is convincd that the boy is guilty, is allied with Four who is eventually convicedEights showing of how the two testimonies given by the old woman and old man are lies, votes guilty. Three outraged by this exclames ;A guilty mans gonna be walking the streets hes got to die! Stay with me.; (23) But Four sees the truth that Eight has brought into th light and still votes guilty. Eight tries to convince Three how the boy is not guilty beyond reasonable doubt but Three does not listen adn would rather see the boy die. ;For this kid, you bet Id pull the switch.(17) This shows how emotionally unstable Three is. He is a grown man living in a civilized community and would like to see a boy who he does not even know die by his own hands Eight does not think highly of Three for what he says about killing the boy and shouts your a sadist.(17) which is the absolute truth about Three. The emotional make-up of a juror can change his desicision on wther or not to let a man live or die. When someone is asked judge someone else, shoud not you look at al the facts to be sure beyond a shoadow of a doubt that the man who cimmitted the crime is guilty? Yes, a juror should look at all the facts but some do not, they just judge the person on how that person feels. . 12 Angry Men Influence of Surroundings Essay Example For Students 12 Angry Men: Influence of Surroundings Essay 12 Angry Men: Influence of Surroundings Essay A persons surroundings can influence him. In 12 Angry Men by Reginald Rose a young mans life is held by twelve men with contrasing views. Eight a caring man, who wishes to talk about why the other jurors think that the boy is guilty, clashes with Three, a sadistic man who would pull the swith himselfto end the boys life. Accroding to Rose, several elements can infulence a jurys verdict, such as the emotional make-up of individual jurors. We will write a custom essay on 12 Angry Men: Influence of Surroundings specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now Many elements can change a jurors decision. Juror Three, who is convincd that the boy is guilty, is allied with Four who is eventually convicedEights showing of how the two testimonies given by the old woman and old man are lies, votes guilty. Three outraged by this exclames A guilty mans gonna be walking the streets hes got to die! Stay with me. (23) But Four sees the truth that Eight has brought into th light and still votes guilty. Eight tries to convince Three how the boy is not guilty beyond reasonable doubt but Three does not listen adn would rather see the boy die. For this kid, you bet Id pull the switch.(17) This shows how emotionally unstable Three is. He is a grown man living in a civilized community and would like to see a boy who he does not even know die by his own hands Eight does not think highly of Three for what he says about killing the boy and shouts your a sadist.(17) which is the absolute truth about Three. The emotional make-up of a juror can change his desicision on wther or not to let a man live or die. When someone is asked judge someone else, shoud not you look at al the facts to be sure beyond a shoadow of a doubt that the man who cimmitted the crime is guilty? Yes, a juror should look at all the facts but some do not, they just judge the person on how that person feels. English . 12 Angry Men Influence of Surroundings Essay Example For Students 12 Angry Men: Influence of Surroundings Essay 12 Angry Men: Influence of Surroundings Essay A persons surroundings can influence him. In 12 Angry Men by Reginald Rose a young mans life is held by twelve men with contrasing views. Eight a caring man, who wishes to talk about why the other jurors think that the boy is guilty, clashes with Three, a sadistic man who would pull the swith himselfto end the boys life. Accroding to Rose, several elements can infulence a jurys verdict, such as the emotional make-up of individual jurors. We will write a custom essay on 12 Angry Men: Influence of Surroundings specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now Many elements can change a jurors decision. Juror Three, who is convincd that the boy is guilty, is allied with Four who is eventually convicedEights showing of how the two testimonies given by the old woman and old man are lies, votes guilty. Three outraged by this exclames A guilty mans gonna be walking the streets hes got to die! Stay with me. (23) But Four sees the truth that Eight has brought into th light and still votes guilty. Eight tries to convince Three how the boy is not guilty beyond reasonable doubt but Three does not listen adn would rather see the boy die. For this kid, you bet Id pull the switch.(17) This shows how emotionally unstable Three is. He is a grown man living in a civilized community and would like to see a boy who he does not even know die by his own hands Eight does not think highly of Three for what he says about killing the boy and shouts your a sadist.(17) which is the absolute truth about Three. The emotional make-up of a juror can change his desicision on wther or not to let a man live or die. When someone is asked judge someone else, shoud not you look at al the facts to be sure beyond a shoadow of a doubt that the man who cimmitted the crime is guilty? Yes, a juror should look at all the facts but some do not, they just judge the person on how that person feels. .

United Nations Personal Statement Essay Sample free essay sample

The UN is one of the most competitory topographic points in the non-profit organisations. I want to be competitory and indispensable to the organisation as I am presently working with UN at its central offices in New York. The UN has a new policy called mobility system. an built-in portion of the staff choice system. This policy aims to develop a more multi-skilled and various staff. to advance a more incorporate attack to the many aspects of the organization’s work and to supply staff with more and varied calling chances. As such the organization’s purpose is to guarantee that its employees do non remain in the same place for more than five old ages. It is for the above ground that I need to foster my surveies. I have to stay relevant at my workplace. When I was analyzing at Ewha Women’s University in Korea. my professional dream was to work in a confer withing company covering with the current challenges of globalisation. We will write a custom essay sample on United Nations Personal Statement Essay Sample or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page My ends have since changed and now my ultimate end is to work for the private sector. I have a Bachelor of Science grade from University of Massachusetts Boston specialising in Management Information System. I besides have a Bachelor’s grade from Ewha Women’s University in Korea where I specialized in International Business. In our current society. globalisation is the driving force that shapes every person’s day-to-day life. I feel this is peculiarly strong driven given that I came to the United States to analyze abroad when I was a high pupil. At the United Nations. I am a Team Assistant for the office of Human Resources Management. Policy support services. conditions of service subdivision and Department of Management. The status of Services subdivision is responsible for carry oning and organizing salary studies at most non-headquarters responsibility Stationss and for urging appropriate graduated tables. allowances and benefits. It besides deals with assorted types of Human Resource Policy support services to UN staff. I am responsible for supplying analytical and proficient support. As such I guarantee the organizations’ operational efficiency is improved. I am besides responsible for O.K.ing. monitoring. calculating and publishing the petitions for blessing of Daily subsistence Allowance ( DSA ) rates. I assist with issue and granting of the Occasional Recuperation Break ( ORB ) policy bi-annually and Publish Information Circular. I maintain an update the web site for conditions of service subdivision. I conduct economic research and analysis on assorted states for the readying of the salary studies. Therefore. I have accomplishments and experience in research and informations analysis on an international graduated table. In this. I have participated in old mission subsistence Allowance reappraisals and studies. I have good communicating accomplishments and is first-class in public relation. I handle clients who have inquiries and enquiries to the subdivision affairs. I one time provided support for a salary study workshop. I am the individual responsible for uploading occupation profiles in United Nation’s occupation site called Galaxy. Prior to working at the UN central office. I was working with LABBLEE corporation. in Cambridge USA. I acted as a back uping analyst and besides assisted concern development executives on assorted undertaking bringings. At the same clip. I redesigned. published and maintained the company web site. I believe I have great trade to offer the plan. non merely because of my exposure to two different civilizations. I have learned a great trade as the consequence of my work over the past four old ages in footings of technology’s impact upon international concern. Thus I hope within and without of the schoolroom to offer my fellow pupils cognition of my experiences in the proficient facets of concern in the United States every bit good as addition greater cognition of International concern as a whole. I would wish to go on prosecuting my instruction and work at the same clip. I want to be marketable in the private sector every bit good as in my current occupation. Having mobility is really important in my calling and the current working tendencies and conditions. I am non merely interested in the masters’ surveies for personal grounds I believe it is important for future professionals to larn in a multicultural environment. I besides have the alone gift of holding a personal history that spans more than one state and civilization. I have a rich background in concern and this is why I believe analyzing International concern will be relevant for me. During my stretch at LABBLEE. I researched on merchandises for buying and negotiated educational monetary values from sellers. I besides determined the quality of leads for the company. More over I recommended any farther concern development resources or activities to change over the leads into concern chances. I besides developed the company’s selling collateral and was in-charge of maintaining marketing collateral up-to-date. I besides conduct extended market research and identified new concern chances in the endeavors mark markets. This sort of success is a justification for my involvement in the private sector. To heighten my planetary competency. I ensured I gained competency in computing machine applications. I am good in computing machine linguistic communication accomplishments. These include c. Visual Basic. MSSQL. Cold Fusion MX. HTML. CSS. Crystal Report and JavaScript. My cognition in computing machine systems such as Windows 95. 98. 2000. XP. NT is huge. I am besides good in office application bundles such as ; MS-Office. Undertaking. Front Page. Vision 2000. Erwin. Dream Weaver. Adobe Page Maker. Fireworks MX and Adobe Photoshop. Deriving a master’s grade in the field of International Business will non merely supplement my cross-cultural position with the current theoretical model of international engineering. concern direction and cultural consciousness. It will besides enable me to take a new way in my professional life and aid others who seek to likewise alter the way of their professional life. While at the University I believe we will larn from one another by speaking about our reciprocally different yet complementary cultural and professional experiences and expertness. The Master surveies will assist me go an internationally attractive employee. I believe I will convey a wealth of cognition and experience to the University. Most of all. it will assist me accomplish my ultimate calling end.

Sound Of Waves Dont Use Essays

Sound Of Waves Dont Use Essays Sound Of Waves Dont Use Essay Sound Of Waves Dont Use Essay Students will be divided into four groups. After group assignment, each student in the group will select ONE topic on which to do outside research. Two deferent sources must be found and the articles must be printed and brought to class In order to receive credit for this assignment. Step 2: Each student must find at least one passage In the novel about the topic they have chosen In their assigned section. Students will write UT or paraphrase the reference and indicate the page number where the quote is found. (The number of topics required for each group will be the same as the number of students found in their group. This assignment must be written in the literary Journal. Step 3: Each student must find at least two literary features in the passage they have found from the novel about their topic. Students will write a sentence explanation in their literary Journal about how these literary features are helping explain or describe their topic. Step 4: Each group will orally present the connection between Information in the research articles and the references found In the novel. Additionally, each individual must explain the Impact of their topic on the novel. All students will also take notes on all topics that are not their own. Time and Place: Orally of the Japanese people Geography influence on the economy and livelihood of autism The climate and weather conditions of ATA-Jim The history of pearl diving Means of travel, communication, world influence on island community Social and Cultural Influence: (A)Religions/Beliefs: Religious holidays and pilgrimages Japanese deities and religious beliefs Buddhist temples Death and memorial rites Worship rituals and objects of worship (talismans) (B) Social: Traditional Japanese clothing Traditional interior design of Japanese houses The importance of punctuality Proper social etiquette for adolescents Japanese bathhouses and their etiquette (C) Gender Roles: The role of the Japanese woman and the Japanese man Japanese arranged marriages (D) Education: The Japanese educational system Apprenticeships to train young people Concept of Individual versus Cooperative behavior In social groups Education in the United States versus Japan- curriculum the student Occupations for men and women: Japanese versus American Family roles and responsibilities (adults and children) Religious views Authorial Style.

Melbourne 2030 and most other strategic plans across Australia seek to Essay

Melbourne 2030 and most other strategic plans across Australia seek to increase residential development around activity centr - Essay Example In most suburbs of Melbourne, changes to the built environment have been brought about. â€Å"The Melbourne regional plan, like all of the Australian metropolitan plans, puts forth a spatial vision of the future† (Beatley & Newman 2009, p.196), directs future investments, and guides the state and local use of development decisions. The foremost aim is to accommodate significant population growth, anticipating up to a million new residents by 2030. The core concepts of the development plan include an urban growth boundary, the protection of ‘green wedges’, and the guidance of future growth into a set of activity centres located along transit corridors. The key strategy of the plan is to increase residential development around activity centres. Thesis Statement: The purpose of this paper is to investigate the strategic plans for residential development around activity centres in the policy ‘Melbourne 2030’ for urban developmental projects; and determine their benefits and disadvantages. ‘Melbourne 2030’: Background of the Policy ‘Melbourne 2030’ guides the development of built environment in the city in the form of accommodation for an increase in the population by one million residents between 2000 and 2030. The addition in numbers together with projected changes in household formation is expected to increase the number of households by 600,000 by 2030. ‘Melbourne 2030’ seeks to chart a â€Å"fundamentally new direction in Melbourne’s urban development by determining the location of the dwellings needed to accommodate these additional households† (Birrell, O’Connor, Rapson et al 2005, p.1-1). The city’s sense of place and identity is created by the streetscape that existed till now with mostly low slung bungalows, dense tree and shrub canopy and resultant green ambience, together with open spaces for recreation. Over half a century ago, Melbourne’s metropol itan planners considered these features to be the way residents liked it, and that it was futile to try changing the local characteristics. Currently 90 percent of the families live in single family dwellings, with 50 percent of the dwellings owned by occupants. According to Birrell et al (2005, p.1-1), â€Å"the Melbourne 2030 template is just the most recent incarnation of a radical shift in metropolitan planning since the 1980s†. This transition intends to reshape the city, changing it from its low density heritage towards a more compressedly packed and merged urban form. Strategic Plan of ‘Melbourne 2030’ ‘Melbourne 2030’ underscored two predominant land use strategies. The first was an urban growth boundary demarcated to protect the city’s green wedges,and rural boundary from urban encroachment by constraining future development within this limit, state Buxton and Goodman (2003, p.205). The second key land-use approach was to â€Å"conce ntrate spatial development within a constellation of 112 activity centres of differing scale and mix distibuted across the city, with several of the centres located on chief public transport nodes† (Dodson 2009, p.5). Future housing is divided into three categories: greenfields development, strategic redevelopment sites, and dispersed urban sites within peripheral suburban areas, together with development to a small extent around small rural

Important Partnerships between Police Officers and the Community Research Paper

Important Partnerships between Police Officers and the Community - Research Paper Example This research paper explores the importance of partnership between police officers and community in reducing criminal activities in the society. Today, law enforcing agencies look at the best approach to handle domestic violence and crime. The need to stump out crime in the society needs a collective effort, which would involve the police and the community. Criminologists argue that partnership between the police officers and the community can help to reduce crimes committed in the community. Largely, the society has a role to play in controlling the security, crime and any other vice that is likely to occur in the community. The manner in which prosecutors handle cases of domestic violence indicates the partnership between the police officers and the community could help to avert criminal activities in the society. Notably, prosecutors use the following approaches to handle cases of domestic violence evidence based prosecution, no drop policies, and special regional or district atto rneys. In conclusion, the importance of partnership between community and police officers include improved safety in the society, effective police activities in the community, leverages of resources used by the police, and leads to a reduction of criminal activities or improvement of behavior in the society. Largely, coordination of information between the society and the police leads to address and possible prosecution of the criminals. Arresting and prosecution of criminals would be difficult without the cooperation of the community.

The role of prophesy in the Judeo-Christian tradition Essay Example for Free

The role of prophesy in the Judeo-Christian tradition Essay In Hebrew, the usual word for prophet is nab. The New Testament uses prophetes from which the English â€Å"prophet† is derived. Prophets were interpreters of God’s will. In popular thought, prophecy is associated with predicting future events but this was not the main function of Biblical prophets. According to Newsome (1984) Hebrew prophets have their roots in a wider Near Eastern context where seers played a clairvoyant role, sometimes using sheep’s entrails as signs pointing to future happenings (p. 11). Seeing the future was associated with ecstatic trance-like states as the seer communicated with spirits, or with God. In the Hebrew tradition, clairvoyant ability became less significant, with prophets taking on a special role as guardians of God’s covenant. The prophet’s job was to challenge the children of Israel to keep the commandments, to keep their covenant with God by upholding justice, living righteously and forsaking the worship of false Gods. There may have been guilds based at some of the ancient holy shrines, such as Shiloh where Samuel operated. I Kings 22: 6 refers to King Ahab summoning four hundred prophets to seek their advice. One of the most important prophets was Nathan, who challenged David to live up to the ideal of kingly conduct. In the Bible, there are sixteen books named for prophets (the twelve minor prophets form one book in the Hebrew bible but are sub-divided in Christian versions). There were many other prophets besides those after whom books have been named, including Elijah and Elisha. Isaiah, Jeremiah and Ezekiel are considered Major Prophets. Moses and Aaron are also referred to as prophets, though they are not usually regarded as such. Indeed Deuteronomy 18:18-22 suggests that Moses represents the â€Å"example of what a YAHWEH prophet should be† (Newsome, p. 5). The prophet spoke truth to power. In doing so, they pointed out what consequences would follow if people failed to keep the commandments. God would punish God’s people. Consistently, the message was â€Å"Obey my voice, and I will be your God †¦ walk in all the ways that I have commanded you, that it may be well with you† (Jeremiah 7: 23). When Jeremiah spoke about the Temple’s destruction, this was not a prediction but a warning of what would happen if the Hebrews disregarded justice. When speaking of the future, what was said was based on what prophets knew â€Å"of the nature of a holy God and of a sinful, arrogant people† (Newsome, p. 11). Ecstasy continued to be associated with prophecy but what was more important was the content of their message, not the means by which this was communicated. False prophets had to be denounced. Famously, Elijah battled with the prophets of Baal (I Kings 18). Above all, prophets were bearers of â€Å"revelation†, their words came to them from God. In the New Testament, Jesus is described as a prophet (Luke 7: 16) and in Christian theology Jesus is understood as God’s word made flesh. Prophets were often reluctant to accept their calling, for example, Jonah (see Jonah 1: 3). Sometimes they operated against the established political system, calling kings to account. At times prophets appear as honored members of a king’s inner circle. In the New Testament, Matthew often cites â€Å"prophecies†, suggesting that prophets predicted events in Jesus life. One way of understanding this is that Matthew was anxious to emphasize continuity between God’s revelation in Jesus and God’s revelation through the prophets. The role of prophet existed in the early church but was never formalized, perhaps because â€Å"prophecy† cannot be controlled. It can challenge established authority. The New Testament also warns against false prophets (Matthew 7: 15), so any claim to be a prophet must be tested against the content of the message. Reference Newsome, James D. 1984. The Hebrew Prophets. Atlanta, Ga: J. Knox Press.

Life in the Sixties :: essays research papers

Life in the Sixties   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Sometimes in life people do strange things, and while others may perceive it as a harmless act, human morals can make it seem otherwise. In the story â€Å"A & P† John Updike reveals what it is like to have been a young man who worked in a grocery store in the nineteen-sixties and what it was like to see three young girls walk in with only two pieces on. The semi- sexist thoughts of how Sammy describes the young girls when they walk in, the three girls walking in to the grocery store in only two pieces was obviously against the moral standards of that day, and sometimes small, seemingly insignificant actions and events can push a person to make a life-changing decisions, are the themes of John Updike’s story.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  How men perceive women is a funny thing, Sammy, the one who is telling the story, gives, what we call sexual, and almost kind of a perverted way of describing the girls. Updike used his descriptions of the girls to bring out that men, even then had impure thoughts of women and the way that we perceive them sometimes, really though, it’s the nineteen-sixties and in walks three beautiful girls in not just bathing suits, but two pieces! Of course a male mind is going to start racing a million miles per second. So begins the sexual descriptions of the girls. So as Sammy is ringing up the lady’s food at the cash register, he can’t help but be distracted, Updike shows us this when Sammy says â€Å"I stood there with a box of HiHo crackers trying to remember if I rang it up or not. I ring it up and the customer starts giving me hell†(p.344). Updike clearly showed that the girls were a distraction to Sammy, and how easy it was for his thoughts to go astray.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The three girls walking into the A & P was not what was wrong, it was the fact that they came in wearing bathing suits. Not just the normal bathing suit, but a bikini! By law, one had to be over eighteen just to get in to a movie if there were going to be women in bikinis in it. Two piece bathing suits were practically unheard of and if someone was caught wearing one, they might have been considered wild and irresponsible. Walking into the grocery store would be were the wild part comes in.

Cell phone use while driving: a literature review and recommendations Essay

1. Introduction Cellular telephones (cell phones) were first introduced in the United States in the mid-1980s, and their use has since experienced explosive growth. Today there are more than 262 million cell phone subscribers, representing 84 percent of the United States population. Cell phone technology has become very useful for people on the move, which is demonstrated by surveys that show that the majority of users reported using their phones while driving. Cell phone use by drivers, although difficult to quantify, has been estimated through observational data by the federal government at six percent of drivers in 2007 (IIHS, 2006). This rate means that at any moment during the day, one million passenger vehicles in the United State are being driven by people on hand-held cell phones. Further analysis of these statistics show that women are more likely to be on their phones while driving; eight percent of women use cell phones while driving compared to five percent of their male counterparts. Also of importance, this data found that young drivers (16-24 years old) were most likely to be on their cell phones at 10 percent compared to six percent of those aged 2569 and one percent of drivers 70 and older (see Figure 1). Public perception of the dangers of cell phone use while driving seems to coincide with common sense and experience, but common practice does not. In a survey done by Nationwide Insurance (IIHS, 2008), four out of five surveyed cell phone owners admitted to driving while distracted. Even though almost half of the surveyed people consider cell phone use to be the most dangerous distraction, 98 percent of the drivers consider themselves to be safe drivers. An interesting result of the survey was that almost two-thirds of cell phone owners say they were expected by family, friends or employers to always be reachable by phone or other communication device. Among young drivers in this survey, 40 percent said they send or read text messages along with other activities while driving in order to â€Å"remain connected† (IIHS, 2008). Another survey of only teenage drivers conducted by State Farm Insurance, found that only 25 percent viewed cell phone use while driving as dangerous. Almost 80 percent, however, recognized that texting on cell phones while driving was risky (IIHS, 2008). The rate at which young drivers are most likely to be using cell phones while driving, along with their attitude towards the perceived risk of using such devices, is concerning because this group is already at the highest risk for collisions even without these distractions. A survey conducted by AAA and Seventeen magazine found that 46 percent of drivers 16 and 17 years old said that they text message while driving. This is a profound statistic because 37 percent of the same teenagers said that they believed that text messaging was the most dangerous driver distraction (Quain, 2007). 2. Quantifying Cell Phone Usage and Crash Risk Drivers’ attentiveness has been a concern since the invention of the automobile. As technology increases, the number of driver distractions increases. Each year, more than 42,000 people are killed, more than 3 million are injured, and more than 6 million collisions occur on roads in the United States (IIHS, 2006). Estimates have attributed between 30-50 percent of collisions to distracted drivers, resulting in huge amount of societal cost (Cohen, 2003). Although common sense and experience tells us that using cell phones while driving is dangerous, a number of studies are devoted to quantifying the exact risk associated with using a cell phone while driving. Since the mid-1990s, around 120 studies have attempted to validate a common conception: using a cell phone while driving is a distraction and therefore increases crash risk (IIHS, 2008). The literature on this subject investigates various relationships between cell phone use and accident risk. These studies can be separated into three general groups: epidemiological studies, experimental studies, and real-world studies. Epidemiological studies examine real-world accident data and cell phone records to draw conclusions based on the relationship between the two. Behavioral and experimental studies attempt to measure some cognitive effect of cell phone use on normal driving functions such as visual attention, following distance, reaction time, and other driving tasks. Real-world studies attempt to show how real-world situations either justify or disprove the other data. Before discussing selected studies, a summary of the general conclusions from each type of study is presented below: (a) Epidemiological Studies: Studies that analyze the relationship between cell phone use and increased crash risk using case studies where people have been in actual accident. Researchers have concluded that the use of cell phones while driving significantly increases the risk of collision (Ontario Medical Association, 2008). (b) Experimental and Behavioral Studies: These studies have been able to demonstrate that having a conversation on a cell phone is cognitively distracting and causes deterioration in driving performance. These studies also confirm the finding of the epidemiological studies that when driving performance is affected negatively, an increased crash risk is observed (Ontario Medical Association, 2008). (c) Real-World Studies: These studies are observations of test subjects that are monitored while in the field. Conclusions are drawn based on the observed data and are a reflection of actual events. The real-world studies have proven that the single most dangerous driver distraction is cell phone use. 2.1 Epidemiological Studies Epidemiological studies have attempted to measure the association of cell phone use with the risk of collision. They examine accident data and cell phone records to obtain a correlation, resulting in a relationship between cell phone use and accident risk. The following review focuses on three epidemiological studies that indicate cell phone use is associated with an increase risk of collision. 2.1.1 Cellular Phones and Traffic Accidents, 1996 In an early study in 1996, Violanti and Marshall used a case-controlled design study where they selected 100 random drivers that had been involved in crashes in the previous two years and compared them against another group of 100 randomly selected drivers who had not been involved in crashes in the previous 10 years. The study concluded that using a cell phone for 50 minutes per month resulted in a collision risk 5.59 times greater than not using a cell phone at all. In this study, the risk ratio is statistically significant, but the confidence limits were large. The obvious limitations of this study are: (1) small number of cell phone users in the sample; (2) selection bias; and (3) lack of evidence that the cell phone users were using their phones at the time of the collision. 2.1.2 Association between Cellular Telephone Calls and Motor Vehicle Collisions, 1997 Redelmeier and Tibshirani (1997) conducted the most quoted epidemiological study of cell phone use and increased crash risk in 1997. This research was a case cross-over design, where each subject served as his/her own control. The study included 699 drivers who had been involved in a collision and who owned cell phones. The authors used five-minute intervals of time before the time of the collision, and compared those against the same time on the previous day. The authors were able to conclude that the risk of collision was approximately four times higher than when the same subjects were not using their cell phones. The only significant limitation to this study is that collision times are estimated. There exists the possibility that cell phone use was a post-collision call instead of a pre-collision call. The authors made a conscious effort to eliminate calls that were precipitated by the collision by identifying 9-1-1 calls and through thorough questioning of the drivers. 2.1.3 Wireless Telephones and the Risk of Road Accidents, 2001 Laberge and Nadeau conducted an epidemiological study in Quebec in 2001. This study was based on a self-reported questionnaire from a sample of 36,079 participants, of which 35 percent had records with cellular telephone providers. Taking into account only age and year of observation, cell phone users had a 38 percent higher risk of collisions than non-users. Including additional constraints, such as miles driven and driving habits increased the relative risk by 11 percent for males and 21 percent for females. The authors also applied the case cross-over design used by Redelmeier and Tibshirani to their data. This method produced a relative risk of being in a crash while using a cell phone at 5.13 times that of a non-user. However, the authors concluded that this case cross-over design over-estimates the risk, and determined that a more realistic risk of collision is around 1.3-1.4 times that of a non-user. 2.2 Experimental and Behavioral Studies The majority of the literature reports on experimental and behavior studies examine the impact of cell phone use on the cognitive functions necessary for driving. Many of the experimental studies have correlated how cell phone use, including hands-free devices, while driving interferes with or degrades various aspects of driving. Because of the quantity of experimental and behavioral studies, only representative research is reviewed in the following four categories: (1) Field-of-View Studies; (2) Brain Research Studies; (3) Simulator Studies; and (4) Benchmark Impairment Studies. 2.2.1 Field of View Studies In 2003, Strayer’s reseach group at the University of Utah found that drivers who use cell phones are less able to process visual information. Based on the observations of participants in a simulator, the study was able to conclude that drivers conversing on cell phones increase their risk of collisions. The researchers attributed the increase in collision risk to a theory called â€Å"Inattention Blindness†. Inattention Blindness is summarized to be, â€Å"Even when participants [drivers] are directing their gaze at objects in the driving environment, they may fail to ‘see’ them because attention is directed elsewhere.† The study also found that the use of hands-free and hand-held cell phones equally impair the driver’s ability to see objects. The study found that â€Å"the disruptive effects of cell phone conversations on driving are due in a large part to the diversion of attention from driving to the phone conversation.† This diversion of attention also affects the driver’s ability to react to sudden event placing pedestrians and others at increased risk for injury (Strayer, 2003). In 2005, researchers from the Japanese Automobile Research Institute further examined the findings from the University of Utah report. The authors of this report agreed with the conclusions of the earlier report, but felt that a more direct assessment of the visual attention needed to be done to identify the exact amount of diversion from what the driver is looking at to the cell phone conversation. The authors conducted experiments with drivers on a simulator using the medically known physiological response â€Å"Binocular Fusion†. The results of this study show that, â€Å"engaging in hands-free phone conversation interferes with visual information processing. The increment of binocular gaze dissociation by conversing on a phone indicates that the driver’s attention is diverted from the external scenery to the conversation.† The purpose of the report was not necessarily to prove that speaking on a cell phone increases crash risk, but this relationship is inferred by the authors (Uchida, 2005). Figure 2 is extracted from Wood’s field-of-view study in 2006 that obtained similar results as the studies mentioned above. It demonstrates the number of errors drivers made while listening and responding to questions went up dramatically when compared against no distractions. 2.2.2 Brain Research Studies A 2005 Study by GM Corp., Wayne State University Medical School, and Henry Ford Hospital set a foundation for understanding how cell phone use by a driver influences the brain function. This study used Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (Æ’MRI) and Magnetoencephalography (MEG) to locate essential brain activated structures and their corresponding dynamics. As discussed above, field-of-view studies generally depend on behavior observations to determine if the mind is focused on the road and thus fail to completely reflect what the brain may actually be doing. The authors suggest that there are situations where behavioral indicators will show that the mind is on the road, but in reality, it is not. With this understanding, the authors set out to uncover the exact neural mechanisms that are associated with distracted behaviors while driving. Putting participants in a simulator and monitoring their brain function, the authors were able to identify the major brain pathways involved in driving and distracted driving. This study set a foundation for determining and measuring how the brain reacts to distracted driving (Young, 2005). In 2007, researchers at Carnegie Mellon University conducted a study furthering the previous study by using Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (Æ’MRI) to investigate the impact of concurrent auditory language comprehension on the brain activity when simultaneously exposed to a simulated driving experience. Participants operated a driving simulator, either undisturbed or while listening to statements they had to identify as true or false. This auditory language comprehension was designed to mimic talking on a cell phone. The participant’s brain activity was monitored during the simulations and was compared against the Æ’MRI scans of the undisturbed driver’s brain. The authors found that when participants experienced the dual-task condition, mental resources were taken away from areas of the brain that deal with driving tasks (see Figure 3). This occurred even though the areas of the brain that deal with driving tasks and auditory comprehension are different. The authors were able to make two conclusion based on their experimental data: (1) mental resources are diverted from driving tasks to 5 auditory comprehension regardless of other physical tasks; and (2) the deterioration of driving performance occurs because of a competition of mental resources in the brain between driving tasks and auditory comprehension (Just, 2008). Figure 3 Percentage Change in Signal Intensity for Five Functional Groupings of Cortical Areas (Source: Just, 2008) Spatial processing areas significantly decrease with the addition of the sentence listening task. 2.2.3 Simulator Studies In 2001, Strayer’s research group at the University of Utah submitted test subjects to different levels of distractions while driving in a simulator. The researchers were able to conclude that cellular phone conversations while driving caused the subjects to react slower to stimuli and perform tasks with considerably reduced precision. Specifically, while engaged in cell phone conversations the subjects were twice as likely to miss simulated traffic signals compared to when they were not distracted. These results were also qualified by showing that talking on a cell phone was more dangerous than when the driver was subjected to common in-vehicle distractions, such as the radio and books-on-tape. The researchers also wanted to determine if the reason the subjects missed the traffic signals was because they did not see them or because they were slow to respond to them. To determine this, the researchers examined the memory of the subjects after normal driving as well as distracted driving. The results indicated clear memory impairment after having been engaged in cell phone conversations. The researchers were able to conclude that active participation in a cell phone conversation while driving disrupted driving performance by diverting attention from driving tasks to a cognitive process. In a 2002 observational study by the Insurance Corporation of British Columbia, researchers used a complex method of identifying specific cell phone users and non-users through in-field observations, and linking these people with their driving records. This method presents some obvious limitations or uncertainty about the user classification; however, the results corresponded well with other identifying methods. The driving records of the cell phone users had higher counts of moving violation citations over the previous four years, to include speeding, alcohol, failure to use seat belts, aggressive driving violations, and non-moving violations. Although the correlation between these violations and use of a cell phone is not scientifically proven by this study, it does likely reflect a difference in lifestyle, attitude and personality of the typical cell phone users; indicating they are inherently riskier drivers (Wilson, 2003). These simulator studies are consistent with a self-report survey conducted by the Traffic Injury Research Foundation. The authors of this report determined that people who use cell phones while driving were more likely to have received a traffic ticket in the last year, drive after drinking, and to consume greater quantities of alcohol when they drink. Again, these behavioral indicators cannot necessarily be directly linked to cell phone use; rather, they suggest a personality type who frequently uses a cell phone while driving (Beirness, 2002). 2.2.4 Benchmark Impairment Studies Innumerable studies have been able to prove the correlation between cell phone use while driving and an increased risk of crashing when compared to normal driving. What these studies have failed to do is show a comparison to known impairment levels. There have been at least three studies that compare the cell phone driver to a drunk driver at the per-se blood-alcohol concentration limit of 0.08 wt/vol. This blood alcohol concentration has been thoroughly studied and quantified as the limit at which the average driver will become incapable of safely operating a motor vehicle. Comparing the cell phone driver to a benchmark of this caliber becomes a solid comparison and explanation to how dangerous driving while on a cell phone really is. In a 2002 study by Burns et al., the authors designed a study to compare the impairment from handsfree and hand-held phone conversations to the decline in driving performance caused by alcohol impairment. Participants were given either an alcoholic beverage or a placebo drink and placed in front of a driving simulator that represented realistic driving tasks. The quantity of alcohol was determined from the participant’s age and body mass, and was closely correlated with the legal limit of .08 mg/ml blood alcohol concentration. The results of this experiment showed a clear substantial decrease in driving performance when using a hand-held phone, in comparison to the sober condition. Driving performance under the influence of alcohol was significantly worse than normal driving, but better than driving while using a phone, leading to a conclusion that driving while talking on a phone is more impairing then driving at the legal limit of alcohol. Strayer’s research group at the University of Utah published research comparing the cell phone driver and the drunk driver in 2003, and a revised report in 2006. The purpose of their research was to provide a direct comparison of the driving performance of a cell phone driver and an alcohol impaired driver in a controlled laboratory setting. These researchers used participants who were casual drinkers and compared their own sober driving, cell phone driving, and alcohol-impaired driving to themselves. This method of control seems to be more accurate than the previous studies’ process of comparing the same situations in different subjects. The researchers were able to conclude that both the intoxicated driver and the cell phone drivers’ driving profiles were different from the sober base-line. Cell phone drivers exhibited a delay in their response to events, had longer following distances, took longer to recover lost speed following braking, and were involved in more traffic accidents. Drivers in the intoxicated condition exhibited a more aggressive driving profile by following closer to the vehicle in front of them and braking harder. The researchers suggest the data indicates impairment or risk from cell phone use is as great as that of the intoxicated driver, but in different ways. The authors also noted that driving impairments associated with hands-free devices and hand-held devices were not significantly different, indicating that the impairment comes from a diversion of attention from the processing of normal driving tasks. 2.3 Real-World Studies Several real-world studies have been conducted and are being conducted to further validate the epidemiological and experimental studies. Our review indicates that the majority of these studies are funded in part by insurance companies or makers of driving performance enhancers. The most commonly cited real-world study involved 100 cars and 42,000 hours of driving time monitored by in-vehicle cameras and sensors over a one-year period. The study was conducted by the Virginia Tech Transportation Institute in 2006, and concluded that, â€Å"secondary task distractions† were the prime factor in collisions. The single biggest distraction leading to collisions was cell phone conversations, dialing, and sending text messages. The Virginia Tech Transportation Institute is conducting another study that involves 2500 drivers and will last three years (Bunkley). We have been able to identify several other current real-world studies that are underway. The studies are funded primarily by insurance companies, and we have been unable to obtain any information about them due to proprietary reasons (Olson, 2007; Robinson, 2008). 2.4 Police Accident Reports Since the studies prove the hypothesis that cell phone use while driving increases crash risk, quantitative analysis of crash causation data should reflect this. This, however, is not the case. The reasons that the real-world data does not match the experimental and epidemiological conclusions are due primarily to two factors. First, three states in 2001 and six states in 2002 provided a specific space on their uniform crash reports to indicate that the use of a cell phone had been involved in the collision. In addition, even with a space available on a police report to record cell phone involvement, the box may or may not be marked. The investigating officer has multiple responsibilities at an accident scene, including tending to injured, restoring traffic flow, completing the investigation, and issuing citations for criminal violations. Officer discretion plays a part in the completion of police reports; even if evidence of cell phone use is present, the officer may or may not indicate that cell phone use was a factor in the collision. A NHTSA study of North Carolina supports this analysis. The study concluded that the underreporting of crashes that are a result of inattention due to cell phone use is substantial. The portion of crashes that were reported to be due to inattention because of cell phone use was 1.5 percent which is significantly below the estimated value obtained in more comprehensive studies of 3050 percent (Cohen, 2003). Second, even if the collection of this data is a requirement for every state, it would likely still be inaccurate because of the public’s reluctance to report cell phone use to police. Because the risks of using cell phones while driving are becoming commonly known and more states are adopting laws to outlaw the use of cell phones while driving, the likelihood that an offender admit to using a cell phone to a police officer becomes less. In addition, a police officer’s reasonable investigation time does not allow for a comprehensive investigation of every crash to include determining the use of cell phones. This is more likely to be reserved for very serious crashes where serious injury and or loss of life were present. To help address the underreporting of crashes that are due to cell phone use, several federal agencies, national organizations, and state and local governments have worked to improve the data collection. In 2003, the national Governors’ Highway Safety Association released a revised edition of the Model Minimum Uniform Crash Criteria (MMUCC), which included changes that would help record the number of crashes associated with distracted driving. The changes, which were developed with the help of NHTSAS, the Federal Highway Administration, the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration, and numerous state and local agencies, define the information that should be collected at an accident scene. Included in the new criteria is that reports should include any information regarding distracted driving. The changes are designed to facilitate more accurate reporting of distracted driving, which in turn, will give policy makers and data analysts more concrete data from which to make conclusions (Sundeen, 2004). The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) has also taken aim at the problem of cell phone use and its underreporting. In a press release in 2006, the NTSB acknowledged that cell phone use by driver’s results in a cognitive distraction that leads to an increase in accident rates. The same press release suggested that the remaining 20 states that at the time did not have driver distraction codes on their uniform accident reports add them (National Transporation Safety Board, 2006). In 2008, the NTSB made a press release that again emphasized the dangers of cell phone use by drivers by citing research conclusion that such activity reduces driving performance. The press release also indicated that the NTSB had added cell phone restrictions by commercial drivers to its 2009 list of most wanted safety improvements (National Transportaion Safety Board, 2008). 3. Cell Phones and Teenage Driver 3.1 Teen Drivers’ Collision Statistics Teen drivers are alarmingly prevalent in the collision statistics. In 2005, 4,544 teens ages 16 to 19 died of injuries sustained in motor vehicle crashes. In the same year, almost 400,000 motor vehicle occupants in this age group were hospitalized from injuries sustained in automobile crashes. Overall in 2005, teenagers accounted for 7 percent of the driving population, but they account for 14 percent of all fatalities. Young people ages 15-24 represent 14 percent of the U.S. population, but account for 30 percent of the motor vehicle injuries. The most concerning age group is the 16-19 year olds. Drivers in this age group are three times more likely to be killed in an automobile crash than people 25-64 years old (Lynch). As shown in Figure 4, crash risk is especially high during the first 6 months of unsupervised licensure (Lee, 2007). Understanding exactly why young drivers are so overly represented in the crash statistics is difficult to isolate, especially while the interactions between young drivers and new technology remains mostly unexplored. Even so, it is safe to conclude from the research that new drivers have difficulty with driving because of inexperience, risk-taking behavior, immaturity, and risk exposure (Lynch). Driving is a divided attention task requiring the driver to multi-task, which is a skill that one improves with experience. This is demonstrated also by figure four in the difference between the novice and learners (supervised) crash rates. The difference in crash rate is probably due to the restriction of exposure to risky situations and aid that is provided from the adult passenger assisting in much of the multi-tasking requirements. Figure 4 Crash rates for drivers under the supervision of an adult and during the first months of independent driving. (Source: Lee, 2007) A study by the Brain Trust Alliance published in 2006 suggests a possible explanation for why young drivers are overrepresented in crashes. The researchers found that the human brain continues to develop well past childhood into early adulthood, reaching maturity at around age 25 (see Figure 5). Different parts of the brain fully develop at different times. Specifically, the prefrontal cortex and parietal lobe are areas of the brain that are still developing through adolescence and the teen years. The prefrontal cortex controls planning, working memory, organization, risk management, self restraint and emotional control. The parietal lobe controls spatial perception and vision which gives the ability to interpret location, speed and distance. The researchers concluded that understanding the brain development is valuable in understanding why young drivers are at risk and the limitations that should be placed on them to reduce the risk. Specifically, the researchers suggest that the time young drivers are under supervised driving needs to be extended to give them the time they need to comprehend the risks of driving and responses for common driving situations. 3.2 Teen Driver and Cell Phone Distractions Technological distractions that tend to distract drivers, such as making phone calls, watching videos, corresponding through email, text messaging, and selecting and listening to music, are become more prolific and are alarmingly most popular with the younger drivers. All of these technologies have the ability to distract the driver; however the cell phone has attracted the most attention. Text messaging among young driver is especially alarming since 46 percent of drivers 16-17 years old admitted to driving while texting and since it not only requires cognitive resources, but it takes eyes off the road (Quain, 2007). In a 2007 study at the University of Iowa, the researchers concluded about young drivers that, â€Å"A high rate of early adoption of new technology, peer pressure, risk-taking tendencies, poor ability to detect and anticipate hazardous situations, and underdeveloped vehicle controls kills all leave young drivers particularly vulnerable to the distractions posed by the increasing variety of infotainment systems† (Lee, 2007). 3.3 Supervised Driving and Parental Involvement Young drivers, especially those recently licensed, who use cell phones compound their risks; intervention of some type is needed. A survey conducted by Allstate in February 2007 of parents of teen drivers found the following: Most parents (55 percent) said they wished they had more time to teach driving safety to their teens. Parents have the ability to influence their teen children’s’ driving in ways that no one else can. The Allstate survey shows that parents feel that teaching children how to drive safely is their responsibility and wish they had more time to teach and supervise their children. Graduated Drivers Licenses, a program to facilitate more parental involvement in a newly licensed teens driving development, are becoming more common throughout the United States. These alone, however, are proving to be insufficient to reduce the increased crash rate of young drivers. Teen driving contracts have been emphasized in many states as a way for parents to passively maintain interest in their teens’ driving behavior. A teen driving contract typically is a signed contract between parent and a teen that specifies the rules, expectations, and responsibilities for safe driving. A typical safe driving agreement covers cell phone use while driving, speeding, driving at night, carrying passengers, as well as seatbelt use. The privileges set out in the teen driving contracts are designed to be reviewed periodically and may be updated depending on how the parents feel the teen is performing (Michigan Secretary of State, 2007). 4. Legislative Attempts to Prevent Driver Cell Phone Use Although young drivers present a particularly urgent situation when it comes to cell phone use while driving, the issue is also a risky one for adult drivers. Either way, the literature and research suggest that something needs to be done to reduce the loss of life and money associated with cell phone use while driving. Numerous efforts are underway to keep drivers safe, including efforts from federal, state, and local agencies, parent groups, and schools. Governments have made various attempts through legislation to outlaw the use of cell phones while driving. This review has identified three reports on legislative efforts designed to help reduce crashes resulting from cell phone use and they are presented below: 4.1 New York State 2001 Hand-Held Cell Phone Ban In 2001, New York became the first state to adopt a law that bans the use of hand-held cell phone devices by all drivers. Prior to the law, the rate of drivers using cell phones was observed at 2.3 percent. Immediately after to several months after the enactment of the law, the observed cell phone use dropped by approximately 50 percent to 1.1 percent. By March of 2003, the rate of cell phone use had risen back up to 2.1 percent which almost matches that of the pre-ban rate. Between December of 2001 and January of 2003, only about two percent of the traffic citations issued in New York were for cell phone use even though a survey conducted by NHTSA of New York drivers showed that 30 percent admitted to still using their phones while driving. A possibility for the decline in effectiveness is the decline in media attention and enforcement since its inception (IIHS, 2003). 4.2 District of Columbia Distracted Driving Safety Act of 2005 In July 2005, the District of Columbia enacted the Distracted Driving Safety Act which prohibits all forms of inattentive driving that result in the unsafe operation of a motor vehicle including hand-held cell phones. Prior to the law, the rate of drivers using cell phones was observed at 6.1 percent. Shortly after the law took effect, the usage rate dropped to 3.5 percent. Interestingly, when the usage rate was measured a year after the law it had risen to four percent, but was still significantly lower than the preban rate. The introduction of this law also followed the typical pattern where a new law is introduced, compliance is at its highest and as time passes, the compliance drops off. Although the rise in usage a year after the introduction of the law was not as significant as that of the New York ban, it was still present. One possibility for this less significant return to pre-ban usage levels is the District of Columbia’s reputation for strict enforcement (McCartt, 2007). 4.3 North Carolina Under 18 Ban of Mobile Communication Devices In December 2006, North Carolina enacted a law that prohibited the use of any mobile communication device by drivers younger than 18 years old. Cell phone usage was observed at high schools prior to the law and five months after the law took effect. The cell phone usage prior to the law was observed at 11 percent. Cell phone usage five months after the law took effect was observed at 11.8 percent. As a control, cell phone usage in the adjacent state of South Carolina was observed over the same period of time and cell phone use there was steady at 13 percent over the observation time. Researchers conducted interviews of teen drivers in which 50 percent of the surveyed teens reported using their cell phones (post-ban) if they had driven the day prior to the survey. The conclusion of the researchers was that the cell phone law had little effect on teenage drivers’ use of cell phones (Foss, 2008). 5. Distance-Based Insurance Polices Keeping drivers safe behind the wheel is becoming an ever increasing priority as evidenced by the many new and innovative approaches to the problem. Solutions are being sought and in some cases found in areas of science, engineering, biomechanics, state-of-the-art safety designs, etc. The following review is based on a relatively new insurance concept called distance-based insurance. Vehicle insurance is typically based on a lump sum pricing method which translates to a fixed cost for each consumer regardless of how many miles a vehicle is driven. A lump-sum insurance policy will result in the same premium across a similar demographic, assuming that other aspects such as age, gender, location, driving records, etc. are the same. Consumers will not see any reduction in price if they reduce their yearly mileage which results in lower risk. Since the risk of collision and other policy claim related losses are dependent on how many miles the vehicle is driven, it seems unfair to apply a lump-sum pricing scheme to such a complex situation (Bordoff, 2008). In a paper written by Litman (1997) he makes a profound analogy of this situation to the sale of gasoline. If gasoline was sold by the car-year, vehicle owners would be required to make one lump-sum payment at the beginning of the year. This payment would allow the owner to fill the vehicle up with gasoline unlimited times throughout the year. Prices would be based on the average consumers’ use of gasoline in his/her demographic. Litman suggests that this unlimited distribution of gasoline would perpetuate an increase in fuel usage resulting in more miles driven, overall vehicle costs, congestion, pollution and increased accident risk. Consumers who use less fuel than the average would find the system wholly unfair and unaffordable and would not use it. Consumers who used more than the average would be in favor of the system because of the benefits it offers them. This system is obviously unreasonable, and anecdotally explains the limitations of our current lump-sum insurance system. In response to this problem, a new distance-based insurance pricing method has been suggested and is being implemented in some places. Distance based insurance policies are variable and are based on the vehicle-miles driven instead of the current practice of lump-sum policies. These policies are designed to better reflect the risk of consumers, since claims are generally proportional to miles driven (Bordoff, 2008). Figure 6 represents the average 2003 distribution of expenditures for ownership of an automobile in the United States. The percentage paid in insurance costs is 21 percent, a significant 13 amount. The benefits of distance-based insurance policies are many, but most importantly is that they more accurately reflect the customers’ mileage-based risk and give many consumers an opportunity to proportionally reduce their insurance rates. Figure 6 Average 2003 Distribution of Expenditures for Automobile Ownership in The United States. (Litman, 1997) Similar to how distance-based insurance pricing has revolutionized the way insurance premiums are being evaluated, safety-based driving systems can revolutionize how driving habits are reflected in insurance premiums. For example, cell phone use while driving increased the risk of collision. If a driver were to voluntarily participate in a program that restricted his/her cell phone use while driving, thereby reducing his/her risk of collision, that behavior could be rewarded by a lower insurance premium. This same methodology could be applied to any risky driving practice (i.e. speeding, teen driving at night, etc.) as reported to an insurance company through reliable technological methods. This, much like distance-based policies, would more accurately reflect the consumers’ safety risk and could result in lower insurance rates. Those who choose not to participate in the program would have to assume the average risk and associated premiums. This program would be a huge incentive for people to participate and subsequently drive safely. 6. Technological Methods for Improving Driving Safety 6.1. Active Safety Features through Vehicle-to-Vehicle and Vehicle-to-Infrastructure Comm. To help avoid car accidents and minimize harmful effects of accidents, many automotive manufacturers aim to provide active safety features such as: forward-looking speed radar, autopilot systems, lane departure warnings, integration of video cameras, collision alerts, situational awareness systems, active headlights, and vehicle-to-vehicle communications to name a few. The radar-based system can be used to help avoid or mitigate the effect of front-end collisions. A number of systems focus on how to utilize wireless vehicle-to-infrastructure communications to provide early warnings to drivers about potential hazards at intersections, where 40 percent of all traffic accidents and 20 percent of crash-related fatalities occur. Specific technologies designed to mitigate the use of cell phones by drivers are generally marketed toward the young driver because that is where the largest concern for safety is, as well as where the most potential improvements can be made. It is also the primary market because often these technologies require voluntary involvement where parents are more likely to involve their children than themselves. These devices are, relatively speaking, in their infancy. Many devices on the market seem to individually employ a portion of what is needed to be a complete and effective system, but each has its limitations. 6.2. GPS-based Driving Monitoring System Examples of a technologies used to monitor teens and provide a possible solution for talking while driving are the wide variety of Global Positioning System (GPS)-based monitoring systems. These systems use the GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System) network to log the vehicle’s location and speed at regular intervals and allow downloading of the data for further analysis. Some advanced monitoring programs provide over-speed alerts and/or send data to a central computer or system through a wireless communication network for tracking teen drivers in real-time. It should be remarked that, in addition to the use of teen driver tracking, these kinds of GPS tracking systems have been successfully used for commercial fleet tracking and network-wide traffic monitoring. Similarly, the windshield camera produced by DriveCam Inc. can record the driving behavior and transmit digital images to a central data server for further analysis. The above-mentioned (passive monitoring) systems, however, are not seamlessly integrated with cell phones, so none of them can actively prevent the use of cell phones even when the vehicle is in motion. They provide only an opportunity for the monitor to give post-violation advice and instruction to the teens, when it might be too late. 6.3. Cell Phone Based Context Identification Currently, mobile phone usage is no longer limited to making and receiving calls, both GPS and accelerometer sensors have been widely supported in the next generation of mobile phones. For example, both GPS and accelerometer sensors have been installed in iPhone 3G smart phones from Apple Inc., and 50 percent of Nokia mobile phones shipped in 2009 will be GPS-enabled. A number of studies aim to utilize embedded sensors in the next generation of mobile phones, specifically GPS and accelerometer sensors to discover and take advantage of contextual information such as user location, time of day, as well as the type of activity the user is involved in, such as walking, driving, or standing still. This contextual information can be used to alter the phone’s status creating a â€Å"smart† phone that is safer and/or more user friendly. Chen and Kotz (2000) provided a comprehensive survey on context-aware mobile computing research. They suggest that although context-awareness is a widely researched topic, there are still areas that could be further explored. The authors specifically highlight the need to further develop the awareness, communication, and use of context-based computing as having the most potential to benefit society. The application of contextual information to cell phones is critically important because it determines what the user is doing, and thereby when to alter the phone status. SenSay is one recent application (Siewiorek et al., 2003) that integrates contextual information with cell phone use. Combining a cell phone with sensory data, user information, and user history, the researchers were able to provide a context aware phone that improves its overall usability. For example, the phone is able to change ringer volume and vibration, and further provide dynamic phone alerts and call handling depending on the users’ activity. The real-world application of this device is limited because of peripherally needed devices, but the integration of this type of context sensing devices within phones holds great potentials. In a GSM or 3G networks, triangulation among two or more cellular towers, signal strength fluctuations, and changes to the current serving cell phone towers can be also used to estimate the context of cell phone users (e.g. study by Anderson and Muller in 2006). The result of context identification, including the speed of moving cell phones, can be used to distinguish driving vs. walking or remaining still. This contextual information can be used to prevent risky driving behaviors, such as talking while driving and texting while driving. However, as shown in a study by Smith et al. (2004), the existing cell phone-based speed estimation results are less accurate when compared to GPS-based methods. These results are exaggerated during periods of congested traffic or stop-and-go traffic on arterial streets. This review was able to identify various devices for sale that are marketed toward teen drivers all with the purpose of monitoring and or reducing poor driving habits. These devices are tools which parents can use to monitor, advise, and teach their children long after the learner and graduated driving experiences have passed. Several companies currently offering some of these devices were contacted and asked if there were any studies or research that had been done showing the effectiveness of their products. The companies responded that studies have been done, but that the results were proprietary because they had been financed by insurance companies. 7. Economic Analysis of Restricting Cell Phone Use Although there is sufficient data to prove that cell phone use while driving increases the risk of crashes, complete restriction of cell phones by drivers has been controversial in part because of the benefits consumers and society receive from these calls and because the exact number of crashes caused by cell phone use are unknown. Several researchers have attempted to quantity these values by comparing the total societal cost of crashes caused by cell phone use to the benefits society receives from the same. The results of three such studies are listed below: Hahn and Tetlock (1999): A complete ban on cell phones by drivers would result in a societal loss of $23 billion annually. Redelmeier and Weinstein (1999): A complete ban on cell phones by drivers would result in a societal loss of $300,000 annually. Cohen and Graham (2003): A complete ban on cell phones by drivers would result in a net societal loss of zero. The Cohen and Graham study was a re-analysis of the Hahn and Tetlock study with updated estimates and more comprehensive analysis. Because the exact numbers of crashes that are caused by cell phone use is unknown and it is difficult to quantify the value of cell phone use in society, these variables needed to be estimated in the analyses. The variability between the three estimates shows how the results are highly dependent on the estimation of these variables. In a Study by Martin et al. (2006), researchers analyzed the impact cell phone use by drivers had on traffic flow. A â€Å"car following behavior† was identified by simulated driving for both the non cell phone user and the cell phone user. The researchers then used these â€Å"car following behavior† models and through simulation and microscopic traffic modeling, were able to identify the impact that cell phone users had on the traffic stream efficiency. The research found that with different traffic conditions and varying percentages of cell phone users, cell phone usage while driving had a negative impact on traffic flow when traffic volumes were moderate or high. Converting these delays into monetary units, the researchers were able to project the cost of the delays caused by cell phone users throughout the entire United States highway network as significant. 8. Findings and Recommendations Distracted driving has been a public concern ever since the beginning of the automobile. Cell phone use by drivers is widespread. Intuitively, one understands that cell phone use while driving is distracting and dangerous, and many studies have proven that instinct to be true. Experimental and behavioral studies have drawn an unambiguous conclusion that cell phone use by drivers results in a cognitive distraction leading to an increased risk of collision. Studies have also been able to quantify this risk as at least as dangerous as driving while impaired by alcohol at the legal limit of .08 mg/ml. Epidemiological examination of actual crash data compared against cell phone records provides confirmation that driving while using a cell phone increases the risk of collision. In the epidemiological studies reviewed in this paper, the increased risk of collision when using a cell phone while driving was found to be between 1.3 and 5.59 times greater than non-users. Real-world data, although scarce, has also confirmed that cell phone use while driving is the single largest driver distraction leading to collisions. Studies are mounting that show an obvious correlation between cell phone use while driving and increased crash risk. The association between cell phone use and increased risk of traffic crashes seems to be validated by epidemiological, behavior, experimental and real-world studies, but the actual number of crashes directly related to cell phone use is harder to determine. Because the exact number of crashes directly related to cell phone use is unknown, the likely financial savings to United States drivers for outlawing cell phone use while driving is also uncertain. Other important findings are listed as follows: (1) Government at all levels has tried to legislate a solution for this problem with poor results, (2) Young drivers are especially susceptible to the danger of cell phone use while driving because they are already overrepresented in the crash statistics, (3) Technology is intervening where legislation has failed to provide solutions to the problem of cell phone use while driving. To improve driving safety in general, and to prevent talking on cell phones while driving in particular, the following initiatives and innovations are critically needed. 1) Accurate reporting of cell phone involvement in collisions on police reports The underreporting of cell phone involvement in collisions on police reports, the best indicator of how many collisions are directly related to cell phone use, has proven to be significant. This is worrisome because many legislative efforts to stop the use of cell phones by drivers are based at least partly on this data. Legislative efforts in themselves have shown to be minimally effective to statistically ineffective in curbing the use of cell phones by drivers. Several government agencies have nonetheless continued seeking for some type of solution to this problem. 2) Technological solutions for accurately identifying driving mode of cell phone users A wide variety of research has been devoted to mobile phone-based context identification by GPS, triangulation, or signal strength. Despite considerable research efforts, the technology remains insufficient to properly distinguish the exact mode of cell phone uses such as driving, walking, or remaining still. Even with all the available location and movement data, it is still extremely difficult to distinguish if a cell phone user is driving a car, seating as a passenger, or riding a bus or train. Inaccurate context identification could lead to problematic disabling of the communication capability when a cell phone user is not driving a car. Additional research is still needed in the area of artificial intelligence to improve the context estimation accuracy. 3) Integrated driving monitoring system There are many products that have been designed to address the problem of cell phone use by young drivers. Some existing context based technologies are designed to passively monitor an individual’s driving by recording their movements and making them available for download at another time. Some advanced monitoring technologies allow for real-time alerts to be sent to a central computer or by text message through wireless communications. These technologies can give real-time information to parents about safety concerns, but fail to provide any way of actively preventing the dangers from happening. The need for a context based solution that also allows for active prevention of cell phone use while driving is apparent. 4) Safety-based insurance policies Distance-based insurance policies have revolutionized the way automobile insurance is evaluated. Distance-based policies are more reflective of the individual mile-based risk and result in more fitting premiums. As distance-based insurance policies have changed how we think about insurance, so can safety-based insurance policies. If a driving safety profile could be determined for an individual consumer, insurance rates could be tailored to better reflect the individuals collision risk. This method could help further reflect a driver’s risk and in many cases lower the insurance premiums or be an incentive for aggressive or inexperienced drivers to drive safely. 5) Cost-effective car safety features Automotive manufacturers are engaged in the design of safety features on vehicles, which are intended to enhance the driver’s ability to avoid collisions. Some of the state-of-the-art safety features that are being explored by the automobile manufacturers are: forward-looking speed radar, autopilot systems, lane departure warnings, integration of video cameras, collision alerts, situational awareness systems, active headlights, and vehicle-to-vehicle communications. Automotive manufacturers have the objective of creating a â€Å"smart† car through the integration of technology. The â€Å"smart† call will be designed to enhance the driver’s ability to avoid collisions, but the driver will still maintain control. 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